Nanoparticles and microplastics - real threats or toxicological fashions

In the beginning of 2000s nanotoxicology became very popular. Before 2004 there were no Web of Science articles, in the 5-year period 2004-2009 175, 2010-2014 slightly above 1000 and between 2015 and 2019 about 2100. The results clearly showed that nanomaterials can be toxic. However, virtually all studies were done with nanomaterial levels which far exceeded environmentally relevant levels. Once it was established that nanoparticles can be toxic, it has become clear that their effects in nature must be demonstrated before they can be considered to be an ecotoxicological problem. Luckily it appears not to be the case as the number of nanotoxicological studies has decreased markedly, to about 900, in the last five years.

One can naturally hope that all the studies which demonstrated the possibility of toxic effects were enough to alert the people responsible for the disposal of nanomaterials about the need to consider how the waste is treated. If that were the case, toxicological research had reached a major goal: preventing a potentially significant environmental problem from developing. In worse case, the situation shows that a lot of scientists eagerly follow the fashion and study something that is popular without considering its importance. What the results have shown is that nanoparticles are probably entering the cells of organisms via, e.g., pinocytotic pathways. Thereafter the effects are probably due to the toxicity of the compound(s) which the particle is made of, and environmental impact depends on the probability of nanoparticle concentration reaching a level which causes malfunction of some organisms.

Thus, nanoparticle toxicity is really the toxicity of the material that the particle is made of, the particle itself is only a means of entering the cells. For example, charged compounds are virtually impermeant, but if they are nanoparticle components, they can be taken up via pinocytosis. If the charged compound thus entering the cell is toxic, it will be harmful. So instead of nanotoxicology addressing all nanomaterials, we should evaluate, which toxic materials are used in nanoparticle formulation. If a material is inert, toxic effects are not likely.

About five years after nanotoxicology became in fashion, the same happened to microplastics. Between 2011 and 2015 there were merely 290 studies about them, but during the past five years close to 14000. Most of the studies are concerned with the distribution and uptake of the microplastics. They have now been found everywhere, from Antarctica to glaciers in the Alps and within virtually all organisms, mothers’ milk etc. Their occurrence everywhere is quite clear, but actually very little is known about their toxicity. In contrast, plastic waste, macroplastics has various harmful effects in addition to fouling the environment. Animals get stuck to plastic waste, plastics can clog their lungs, gills or intestine. To everyone watching news reels the sorry sights of seals and birds having died in nets is familiar. But microplastics, their effects are uncertain.  

If microplastics are made of pure polyethene or polyethylene, I have difficult to see that they could be toxic. They are inert materials which can, in my opinion, best be compared to cellulose or starch, which we and all the herbivores eat and digest all the time. However, as with nanoparticles, microplastics can be toxic, if they are associated with toxic materials. This is possible or even probable, if the environment is polluted with hydrophobic toxicants. They get adsorbed to plastics instead of any aqueous material. The toxic particles can then be taken up via pinocytosis and exert cellular toxicity. However, again as with nanoparticles, microplastics in themselves are not toxics, they are just the means by which hydrophobic toxicants can get in the tissues.

As a conclusion, I must stay that many of the studies on nanoparticles and microplastics have been done because the topics are fashionable. Instead of showing over and over again that nanoparticles can be toxic or that microplastics are found everywhere one should start considering, when their presence causes environmental risk because of their association with the pollutants which are the true problem.